Friday, May 31, 2019

Women Entrepreneurs in the U.S. Essay -- Gender and Small Business

Across America, there is a prevalent viewpoint that women are inferior to men in the field of entrepreneurship. However, The common perception that women to begin with start small hobby-related enterprises that are less likely to grow is contradicted by substantial evidence showing that women own firms in all industrial sectors, and that legion(predicate) do want to grow them in size and scope, (Brush, Carter, Gatewood, Greene, & Hart, 2001, p. 4). In the United States in 2007, nearly 7.8 million firms were women-owned (National Womens Business Council, 2012). Some may entrust that this viewpoint permeated society because men are more victorful at starting businesses than women. Yet, women-led businesses are non more likely to fail than those led by men, (Rosa, Carter, & Hamilton, 1996) (Kalleberg & Leicht, 1991). That being said, women would be even more successful as entrepreneurs if they had equal access to support as that of their male counterparts. One way businesses receiv e funding is through nonsuch investors. Angels provide financial backing and bring industry experience and a network of potentially valuable contacts (i.e. the gold-plated rolodex) that can service as intangible assets to the firm (Amatucci & Sohl, 2004, p. 186). They are focused on the success of the business, rather than gaining profit or a majority share-hold. Women receive less funding from angel investors due to the realization of stereotype threat pertaining to three traits related to success in entrepreneurship confidence, risk tolerance, and social capital. This causes a cycle that deters female entrepreneurial success women-led firms lack necessary start-up funds, which hinder their success, and the ability to become angel investors themselves. This cy... ...tes/default/files/NWBC%20Final%20Narrative%20Report.pdfOster, N. (2013, November). Men vs. women Risk aversion. In BlackRock, The Blog. Retrieved December 14, 2013, from http//www.blackrockblog.com/2013/11/06/men- women-risk-aversion/Rosa, P., Carter, S., & Hamilton, D. (1996). Gender as a determinant of small business performance Insights from a British study. Small Business Economics, 8(6), 463-478. Retrieved December 13, 2013, from http//link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00390031Sohl, J. E., & Hill, L. (2007). Women business angels Insights from angel groups. Venture Capital, 9(3), 207-222. doi10.1080/13691060701324536Stengel, G. (2013). Its not just warren buffet who is bullish on women. In Forbes. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from http//www.forbes.com/sites/geristengel/2013/05/08/its-not-just-warren-buffett-who-is-bullish-on-women/

Thursday, May 30, 2019

Individual Freedom in Melvilles Bartleby, the Scrivener Essay

Individual Freedom in Melvilles Bartleby, the Scrivener What motivates you to go to work everyday? What motivates you to dress the panache you do? What motivates you to be reasonable when it comes to normal requests? Ah, the ultimate question in need of an answer Who determines what is reasonable and normal, and should we not determine these matters for ourselves? Chaos would result, you say, if every somebody were granted that freedom. Yet, we both do have that freedom, and Her humankind Melville (1819-1891) through the interpretation of a man who prefers to follow his own path in Bartleby, the Scrivener, subjectively conveys the rational anguish he experienced as a writer and man when the literary world attempted to steal that freedom.Dear Bartleby was a harmless man with a demeanor that was capable of disarming many. From the onset of Melvilles story, it becomes quite apparent that Bartleby is a man who prefers not to do what society wishes of him. He prefers not to accolade any request from his employer that would make him deviate from what he prefers to be doing. Bartlebys employer quickly realized that, there was something about Bartleby that not notwithstanding strangely disarmed me, but in a wonderful manner touched and disconcerted me (2236). Bartleby gave no argument nor tried to justify denying his employers request. He would simply state, I would prefer not to. His only motive was to do as he preferred. Bartlebys employer found this expression of freedom very strange. Where did this man come from who has the audacity to break the pattern of normalcy that we all follow? He who will not comply with my request-a request made according to common usage and common sense...(2337). However, what was common for others was not comm... ...rican equals (2292). Melville was not alive(predicate) to witness this revival. Due to his resolve to retain his literary freedom, he was able to attain everlasting literary success that resounds from his own realm of reasonable and normal.As for myself, I would prefer not to disclose any motivational reasoning for my own preferences less I confuse even further those who still cannot actualize my denying normal and reasonable request. If I were to regulate the writings of my mind- I would never write.Works Cited* Melville, Herman. Bartleby, the Scrivener. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Baym. 6th ed. Vol.B. New York W.W. Norton & Company, 2003. 2290-2337 * Edwards, Jonathan. Sinners in the Hands of an irate God. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Baym. 6th ed. Vol.A. New York W.W. Norton & Company, 2003. 503

Wednesday, May 29, 2019

Cathy Ames as the Devil in John Steinbecks East of Eden Essay

Cathy Ames as the Devilin East of Eden East of Eden was a novel that explored the grow of evil in its most primal form. Through intricate plot lines and complex characters, John Steinbeck weaved a tale of brutality, cruelty, and isolation. One important character that helped to beautify the presence of evil throughout the prevail was Cathy Ames, an intelligent woman who ruthlessly used other people to serve her own needs. When reflecting upon East of Eden, a surround that often surfaces is whether Cathys evil was a result of nature or nurture. Arguments for and against both sides are in the book. At some times, Cathy is portrayed as a grave fiend whos aggression stems from nowhere but her own empty heart. Other times, Cathy appears weak and afraid of people who arent the least bit intimidating. Those are the moments in the book where one must question whether Cathy is truly evil, or just an impatient and self-centered individual. Cathys upbringing did not seem to be a likely sharpen to foster dissent and animosity in the young girl. Her pa...

Judicial Process of the Supreme Court Essay -- American Government, Su

Natures Judicial Process in the tyrannical tourist court consists of decision-making based on the legal power of the Supreme salute. Although the Supreme Court has the capability to decide all extended wooings it also has the power to ascend under the Constitution, which allows the Supreme Court its jurisdiction in the Judicial Branch of government. The Judicial Process interpret the laws that are established in the Supreme Court thus, allowing the Court to exercise its power by slip its system under the Constitutional laws of the United States. Throughout the Supreme Court, many cases have been rejected and are deposed of, but the Supreme Court approves only current cases. Thus, the Supreme Court reconciles the issue of that specific case, which is then obtained and written by the Chief Justice of the Court as the final conclusion. Cases that are controversial resolve in great effect in the Supreme Court. For instance, Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka in 1954 was one of the most controversial cases that the Supreme Court had to resolve it violated the Equal Protection clause of the fourteenth Amendment. The case that violated an individual right was the case of Gideon vs. Wainwright in 1963, which violated the sixth Amendment in a criminal case for the defendant. The case of Miranda vs. Arizona in 1966 is another controversial case that the Supreme Court had to base its judgment in order to have the individuals rights read to them due to the violation of the Fifth Amendment. Cases that are controversial have set many concerns throughout the judicial process of the Supreme Court therefore, the progress of the people in the Judicial Branch was recognized to appreciate how far the Court has advanced and how superior in power the ... ...s considered to be encroachments to the Amendment and the Constitution. When Miranda was not told of his right to silence when asked by an officer, sparked the controversial case that convicted him of violating the C onstitution even though the rights of Miranda was never read to him. Despite the fact of his rights, Mirandas case is an issue that the Supreme Court has not faced yet. However, the case is controversial since ones right is not informed, so in the Warren Court the affirmation of a criminal was to have his rights read despite being a criminal. If the obtainment of any items that are evident will be confiscated illegally since the right has not been addressed, so the evidence is not valid for the officer to obtain. During the time of the case, the decision was thought to cause more than controversy, but allowing criminals to set cornerstone out of prison.

Tuesday, May 28, 2019

Lord Byron’s Darkness Essay -- essays papers

Lord Byrons DarknessLord Byrons Darkness illustrates a dark and discouraged outlook for the world as we know it. The world loses all sense of hope and is left with only despair and immorality after the loss of the supplier of thought and hope-sunlight. With the extinction of sunlight comes the destruction of social classes due to inevitable fear of death, and, as a result, all that is left is chaos. The psychological mind drastically changes its mannerisms and mode of thinking when faced with life and death situations. In the solitude of pitch-black infinite space, men forgot their passions-all values were lost, hopes and goals were put on hold, and only darkness existed. A world living in darkness was forced to displace its social classes and live one in utter darkness. All ...

Lord Byron’s Darkness Essay -- essays papers

Lord Byrons DarknessLord Byrons Darkness illustrates a dark and pessimistic outlook for the world as we fill in it. The world loses all sense of hope and is left with only despair and darkness after the loss of the provider of thought and hope-sunlight. With the extinction of sunlight comes the goal of social classes due to inevitable fear of death, and, as a result, all that is left is chaos. The psychological mind drastically changes its mannerisms and mode of thinking when faced with livelihood and death situations. In the solitude of pitch-black infinite space, men forgot their passions-all values were lost, hopes and goals were put on hold, and only darkness existed. A world living in darkness was forced to displace its social classes and live one in utter darkness. All ...

Monday, May 27, 2019

Look Back in Anger

Alienation and Loneliness prise Porter spoke for a heroic segment of the British population in 1956 when he ranted about his alienation from a order of magnitude in which he was denied any meaningful role. Although he was meliorate at a white-tile university, a reference to the newest and least prestigious universities in the United Kingdom, the real power and opportunities were reserved for the children of the Establishment, those born to privilege, family connections, and entree to the right schools. infract of the code of the Establishment was the stiff upper lip, that reticence to show or even to feel strong emotions. appreciates alienation from Alison comes precisely because he cannot break done her cool, her unwillingness to feel deeply even during sexual intercourse with her husband. He berates her in a coarse attempt to get her to strike out at him, to stop sitting on the fence and make a full commitment to her real emotions he wants to force her to feel and to have vita l life. He calls her Lady Pusillanimous because he sees her as too cowardly to commit to anything. esteem is anxious to give a great deal and is deeply uncivilised because no one seems interested enough to take from him, including his wife. He says, My heart is so full, I feel ill and she wants peace petulance and HatredJimmy Porter operates out of a deep well of anger. His anger is directed at those he loves because they refuse to have strong feelings, at a society that did not fulfill promises of opportunity, and at those who smugly assume their places in the social and power structure and who do not care for others. He lashes out in anger because of his deeply felt helplessness. When he was ten years old he watched his idealist father dying for a year from wounds received struggle for democracy in the Spanish Civil War, his father talking for hours, pouring out all that was left of his life to one bewildered little boy. He says, You see, I learnt at an early age what it was t o be angry angry and helpless. And I can never forget it.Related reading My Problem With Her AngerApathy and PassivityAlthough Alison is the direct target of Jimmys invective, her apathy and passivity are merely the immediate representation of the attitudes that Jimmy sees as undermining the whole of society. It is the complacent fluency of society that infuriates Jimmy. When speaking of Alisons brother Nigel, he says, Youve never heard so many well-bred commonplaces coming from beneath the same bowler hat. The Church, too, comes under antiaircraft in part because it has lost relevance to contemporary life. For Helena it spells a safe habit, one that defines right and wrong for her although she seems perfectly willing to ignore its strictures against fornication when it suits her. Jimmy sees the Church as providing an easy escape from facing the pain of living in the here and now and thus precluding any real redemption. Of course, Jimmy has also slipped into a world of sameness as illustrated by the three Sunday evenings spent reading the newspapers and even the direct replacement of Alison at the iron out board with Helena. Deadly habit is portrayed as insidious.Class ConflictJimmy comes from the working class and although some of his mothers relatives are pretty posh, Cliff tells Alison that Jimmy hates them as much as he hates her family. It is the class system, with its built-in preferential treatment for those at the top and exclusion from all power for those at the bottom, that makes Jimmys humans seem so meaningless. He has a university degree, but it is not from the right university. It is Nigel, the straight-backed, chinless wonder who went to Sandhurst, who is stupid and insensitive to the needs of others, who has no beliefs of his own, who is already a Member of Parliament, who will make it to the top. Alisons father, Colonel Redfern, is not shown unsympathetically, but her mother is portrayed as a class-conscious monster who used every tacti c she could to retain Alison from marrying Jimmy. The only person for whom Jimmys love is apparent is Hughs working-class mother. Jimmy likes Cliff because, as Cliff himself says, Im common.Identity CrisisWhile Jimmy harangues everyone around him to open themselves to average feeling, he is trapped in his own problems of social identity. He doesnt seem to fit in anywhere. As Colonel Redfern points out, operating a sweet-stall seems an odd occupation for an ameliorate young man. Jimmy sees suffering the pain of life as the only way to find, or earn, ones true identity. Alison does finally suffer the immeasurable loss of her unhatched child and comes back to Jimmy, who seems to embrace her. Helena discovers that she can be happy only if she lives according to her perceived principles of right and wrong. Colonel Redfern is caught out of his time. The England he left as a young army officer no longer exists. Jimmy calls him just one of those sturdy old plants left over from the Edwa rdian natural state that cant understand why the sun isnt shining anymore, and the Colonel agrees. Cliff does seem to have a strong sense of who he is, accepts that, and will move on with his life.SexismA contemporary reading of Look Back in Anger contains inherent assumptions of sexism. Jimmy Porter seems to many to be a misogamist and Alison a mere encipher struggling to view the world through Jimmys eyes. Note There are comments associated with this question. See the discussion page to add to the conversation.

Sunday, May 26, 2019

Assessment of Learning

ASSESSMENT IN INCLUSIVE SETTINGS EN judgement for larn and Pupils with Special Educational Needs The aim of this paper is to suffer a summary of the key issues that emerged during the Agency stomach discernment in Inclusive Settings in relation to the application of the concept of discernment for skill to pupils with special educational require (SEN). A signifi stopt aspect of inclusive judgment in rule that emerged from the on-going discussions with Project Experts was the concept of appraisal for eruditeness.References to this concept can be found in the majority of project Country Reports on national estimate systems (www. european-agency. org / pose/themes/assessment/index. shtml). Within these Country Reports, mind for Learning can be seen as a qualitative type of assessment procedures. This type of assessment to a fault referred to as formative or on-going assessment is usu solelyy carried out in classrooms by class teachers and professionals that work with the c lass teacher. It usu completelyy refers to assessment procedures that inform teachers or so pupils unwraping and guides them in planning the next steps in educational activity.As a central task within the second phase of the Agency project, a determination was taken to explore in more depth the concept of opinion for Learning and how this can be applied to assessment in inclusive settings. devil activities were conducted A re take of available literature considering the concept. This was a short review of English language materials (please see the reference list at the end of this document) Discussions with all Project Experts. Information from the initial review of available literature was presented to Project Experts as a stimulus for their discussions.This led to the Experts being asked to reflect on the differences among judicial decision for Learning (formative, ongoing assessment) and perspicacity of Learning (summative assessment) using the following parameters PAR AMETERS PURPOSE GOALS ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING Supporting Learning right (linked to predetermined standards) Informs teaching and instruction Promotes further steps in learning Foc drops on improving Develops pupils skills of reflection Collection of information about what has been achieved (a record of marks) Comp atomic number 18s with argets that establish been pre-established. Focuses on achievement www. european-agency. org 1 PARAMETERS ACTORS WHEN TOOLS ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING Teachers Pupils Parents Peers Other school professionals On-going ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING Teachers External practitioners At fixed and pre-determined times Discussions, observations, self- Tests, drilling, grading, marking, assessment, peer-assessment, questioning, observation teacher debate, comment-only, dialogue, questioning, feedback, no-grading, portfolio, someone education planAdapted from Harlen (2007a) The key difference between Assessment for Learning and Assessment of L earning can be identified as the purpose for which teachers and other(a) professionals gather grounds of learning. Although some tools may be the same (e. g. questioning) the key issues emerging from the feedback provided by Project Experts indicated that it is necessary to keep in mind that Assessment for Learning aims at improving learning Assessment of Learning aims at ensuring accountability (of schools and teachers). Assessment for Learning explores the potential for learning and indicates the next step to be taken in order to promote learning and focuses upon the dynamics of teaching and learning) Assessment of Learning shows what has been already achieved, memorised and absorbed and provides a snapshot of the current situation. The actors problematical in Assessment for Learning are able to provide insights into progress that a pupil has achieved and how the school contributed to this development the actors involved in Assessment of Learning include professionals who are external to the school situation (e. g. inspectors) and may be required to provide a picture of a school at a particular point in time, but they may non always know the school linguistic context and life in the necessary detail to provide insights into pupil learning.Assessment for Learning and Pupils with SEN? The concept of providing feedback to pupils about their learning is the crucial element in understanding the potential difference between the use of the term Assessment for Learning generally by educators as it is near often used for example within the project Country Reports and the use of the term within a research context. Overall, Assessment for Learning is concerned with collecting evidence about learning that is used to adapt teaching and plan next steps in learning.Evidence 2 www. european-agency. org about learning is crucial as it indicates if in that location has been a shift (or not) in a pupils learning progress and maybe learning processes. On the basis of such evidence, teachers can formulate targets/goals and are able to provide pupils with feedback about their learning (see Hattie and Timperly, 2007) clearly indicating to a pupil not just what they flummox learned, but overly giving them information on how they may have learned it and how best they can learn in the future.The feedback provided during Assessment for Learning contributes to a pupils reflection on their own learning. Within the research literature reviewed for this investigation, Assessment for Learning is often described as involving this form of self-reflection, or more specifically, as a means by which pupils reflect on their own learning as they are engaged in an interactive feedback draw in with their teachers.The essential aim of employing the feedback loop within Assessment for Learning is to promote pupils meta-cognition that is their own understanding of not just what they learn, but how they learn and can learn in the best way. This is clearly presented b y the Assessment Reform Group (2002) who describe Assessment for Learning as the process of seeking and interpreting evidence for use by learners and their teachers to decide where the learners are in their learning, where they need to go and how best to get there. Assessment Reform Group, p. 2) Assessment for Learning within this research-based context involves issues of self-reflection and self-assessment that develops a pupils own understanding of how learning is taking place and how it can be developed. This is particularly relevant as Assessment for Learning emphasises assessment as a process of meta-cognition (see for example the thought of Assessment as Learning in Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education, 2006).These notions, however, are not always the main focus when the concept of Assessment for Learning is used more generally (that is as in the project Country Reports). Meijer (2003) suggests that what is skinny for pupils with special edu cational needs is also good for all pupils and this maxim is one that has been considered throughout the entire Agency Assessment project. However, when considering the researchgenerated concept of Assessment for Learning, it has to be recognised that the work has been conducted in relation to pupils without SEN.Within the research work on Assessment for Learning considered in the literature review (Lynn and et al. , 1997 Black and Wiliam, 1998), issues around Assessment for Learning and pupils with SEN are only very marginally dealt with. Consequently, a decision was taken to actively explore within the Agency Assessment project the relevancy of the research-based concept of Assessment for Learning for the learning of pupils with SEN along with the possible implications for assessment procedures used by teachers, school managers, parents and even www. european-agency. org 3 upils themselves. Within the Agency Assessment project discussions therefore, the central question emerged as being is what is good for most pupils also good for pupils with SEN? The discussions with project experts essentially explored if the research concept of Assessment for Learning was valid for pupils with SEN. Two main areas were debated by Project Experts 1. Does Assessment for Learning mean the same thing for pupils with and without SEN? Are same principles applied? 2. Are there differences in the use of Assessment for Learning for pupils with and without SEN?If so what are these differences for pupils, teachers, school managers and educational practice? Assessment for Learning a relevant concept The most main outcome emerging from the discussions of the Project Experts is the agreement that Assessment for Learning is a significant element in successful teaching and learning of teaching with all pupils, including those with SEN. In essence, the critical question to ask is not whether Assessment for Learning can be applied to pupils with special educational needs, but sooner how i t can be applied.However, one potential area of concern was highlighted by project experts in relation to using Assessment for Learning with pupils with the most crude(a) needs. In particular, engaging pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties in the feedback loop was seen as being challenging. However, project experts reflections on this potential difficulty can be summed up as follows students with profound difficulties do not need different assessment systems, but only different methods/tools of assessment.Assessment for Learning methods and tools In relation to tools for Assessment for Learning, Project Experts feedback indicates that m any(prenominal) Assessment for Learning set aboutes (such as individualised observation, portfolios and diaries) have been extensively used in special needs education settings for some spacious time. In relation to other potential methods and tools it is necessary to underline the fact that Assessment for Learning methods and t ools can be used with pupils with SEN providing that they are modified and familiarized (accommodated) to pucker the needs of the individual pupil. www. european-agency. org Teacher observation was seen by Project Experts as a main method for gathering Assessment for Learning information. This approach is seen as particularly relevant for pupils with SEN as it may be the only method available to gather information about the learning of pupils who use non- or pre-verbal forms of communication. However, the Project Experts inputs suggested that teachers needed to be given more guidance by specialists in order to improve their skills in observation.Specifically, project experts indicated that more guidance should be given to develop more individualised methods of observation of pupils with SEN. Some suggestions included the use of videos as helpful tools to collect evidence of learning for students with profound learning difficulties and to provide teachers with the best opportunitie s to reflect upon assessment and discuss the evidence with their colleagues. Questioning is often a crucial part of the teacher pupil interaction that occurs in the Assessment for Learning feedback loop.Project Experts indicated that questioning pupils with SEN is also possible and necessary but only if the questions are framed in a way that allows pupils to have enough time to answer (the wait time) and if different stimuli to support questions (e. g. visual versus verbal stimuli) and ways of responding (e. g. eye contact) are considered In addition, Project Experts also indicated that the portfolio if complemented with other information, for example the pupils IEP or specialist therapeutic programmes could be a tool for dialogue with other professionals and parents.Finally, Project Experts expressed their view that approaches that encourage selfassessment and particularly self-reflection are tools within Assessment for Learning provided that they are adequately adapted and m odified to meet the needs of individual pupils. The reinforcement of self-assessment skills was seen as a crucial goal for pupils with severe learning difficulties whose personal learning targets may often include autonomy and independence. These competences are fundamental skills clearly back up by the development of self-reflection and meta-cognitive skills (Porter et al. 2000). Assessment for Learning implications for school managers All Project Experts agreed on the important role played by school managers in creating the opportunities for teachers to discuss and reflect on assessment issues and for parents to participate in the process of assessment of their children. There is a need for head and deputy school managers to monitor lizard planning and assessment more home/school diaries, informal chats reviews, phone calls. www. european-agency. org 5School managers are crucial actors for the development of an organisational ethos that recognises pupils involvement as fundam ental (Porter, Robertson and Hayhoe, 2000). Without respect for pupils wishes and a general school philosophy that supports pupil participation, Assessment for Learning is less likely to develop. Overall, as far as school managers are concerned, Project Experts crossways different Agency countries indicated there is a real need for them to provide all teachers with more formal time to reflect on their use of assessment in order that they can successfully engage in Assessment for Learning processes with pupils.Conclusions All of the contributions from the project experts were unanimous the concept of Assessment for Learning as currently understood by countries, but most importantly for this debate also as described in the research literature is valid for all pupils including those with SEN. From the discussions held with Project Experts, this proposition can be developed further Assessment for Learning concerns all pupils and from an inclusive perspective there should not be any n eed to differentiate between pupils with or without SEN, but rather to differentiate classroom practice to meet all pupils requirements.Building on this assertion, four main findings can be highlighted 1. The same principles of Assessment for Learning apply to pupils with or without SEN. 2. The only difference in Assessment for Learning between pupils with and without special educational needs is essentially in the type of tools and the assessment/ communication methods used by teachers. 3. The only area of concern relating to Assessment for Learning being applied to pupils with SEN relates to the notion of Assessment for Learning as a tool for pupils reflection on their own learning (i. e. the interaction between the pupil and teacher during the feedback loop).For pupils who use alternative forms of communication this feedback process cannot operate in the traditional language based way. In this case, a more individualised approach, new assessment tools and a variety of means for t eacher/pupil interaction need to be explored and implemented for example close observation in structured situations which allows teachers to assess pupils likes/dislikes and so forth. 4. Many methods and tools of Assessment for Learning have been developed within special needs education settings and could be transferred into mainstream ettings to improve educational provision for all pupils. In summary, Assessment for Learning can and should be applied to all pupils, including those with SEN, providing that the relevant and necessary changes and 6 www. european-agency. org modifications are made in order to ensure the individual pupils full participation in the assessment process. It is clear that the discussions relating to the concept of Assessment for Learning within the remit of the Agency Assessment project have only provided a starting point.More detailed examination research and also the wider dissemination of examples of good practice in applying Assessment for Learning to meet the needs of pupils with SEN is needed in the future. It is hoped however, that the reflections from project experts as well as their assertion of the usefulness of the concept in supporting the learning processes of all pupils testament inform the work and decision making of educational policy makers and practitioners across Europe.For the full text of this paper including direct quotations from Project Experts relating to the key findings please go to http//www. european-agency. org/site/themes/assessment/index. shtml www. european-agency. org 7 References Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for Learning Beyond the Black Box. Cambridge University of Cambridge School of Education. Assessment Reform Group (2002) Assessment for Learning 10 principles. Research-based principles to guide classroom practice. Nuffield Foundation Electronic source available online at http//www. qca. rg. uk/libraryAssets/media/ 4031_afl_principles. pdf (Last accessed November 2008). Black, P . and William, D. (2002) Inside the Black Box Raising Standards through classroom Assessment London Kings College. Harlen, W. (2007a) Assessment of Learning. London Sage. Harlen, W. (2007b) The Quality of Learning assessment alternatives for primary education. (Primary Review Research Survey 3/4). Cambridge University of Cambridge. Hattie, J. & Timperly, H. (2007) The fountain of feedback. Review of Educational Research, Vol. 77, N. 1, pp. 81-112. Lynn, S. F. and et al. 1997) Effects of task-focused goals on low-achieving students with and without learning disabilities American Educational Research Journal, 34, 513-543. Meijer, C. J. W. (ed. ) (2003) Inclusive Education and Classroom Practices. Middelfart European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education. Porter, J. , Robertson, C. and Hayhoe, H. (eds. ) (2000) Classroom Assessment for Students with Learning Difficulties/Disabilities. Birmingham Qualifications & Curriculum Authority. William, D. (2007) Assessment for learn ing why, what and how. London Institute of Education, University of London.William, D. and Leahy, S. (2007) A theoretical foundation for formative assessment. In J. McMillan, H. (ed. ) Formative Classroom Assessment Theory into Practice (pp. 29-42). New York Teachers College Press. Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education, (ed. ) (2006) Rethinking Classroom Assessment with Purpose in Mind. Crown Right of the Government of Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, Yukon Territory Western and Northern Canadian Protocol for Collaboration in Education. 8 www. european-agency. org

Saturday, May 25, 2019

Maori Health Care in New Zealand Essay

Access to wellness is a fundamental right of all adult male beings (WHO 2004). If all slew had access to wellness care then no disparities would be found between different groups. However, gibe to Giddings (2005) the wellness status of groups in various countries is not similar and capture widened between groups since some groups are marginalised and others are privileged by their social identities. This may also be the case in New Zealand. Statistics by the Waikato regulate wellness Board (2012) indicate that Maori as a group is more prone to ill health than any other ethnic groups in the region. akin results were obtained by Howden, Chapman & Tobias (2000) who state that Maori have lesser health standing at levels such as all learning opportunities, job status and income than non-Maori. The general polish from these studies is thereof that there does seem to be a discrepancy with Maori health care. In prescribe to address this, it is needed to identify and address the relevant factors that stomach create a barrier to a level playing field for Maori as out-of-the-way(prenominal) as health is concerned and through this process distribute effect to the WHOs right to health outcomes for all.Howden, Chapman & Tobias (2000) see the barriers to efficient Maori health care as being institutional racism, ongoing effects of colonization on Maori through tapering the Maori monetary base and reducing Maori political influence. Theunissen (2011) agrees in principal with this by concluding that the disparities in Maori health hold out main(prenominal)ly ascribable to an inconsistent consideration of Maori culture and social policies. Factors such as institutional discrimination (leading to interpersonal racism which is seen as breaches of human and indigenous rights), lack of compliancy and lack of cultural safe practises are seen as barriers to the provision of efficient health services. According to the Ministry of wellness (2012) health is look ed within a framework of values, priorities, incorporated experience, customs, beliefs and place in society of which all is influenced by social policy. To improve Maori health and address inequalities within the social policy framework, one must therefore consult with Maori as to their health priorities and the manner in which it should be rendered. Maoris perspectives on health are reflected in various models such as Te Whare Tapa Wha, Te Wheke and Te Pae Mahutonga with all of these models emphasising a holistic approach. In this paper the Te Pae Mahutonga model is used (Durie, 2003) to explain Maori health.The model identifies sixcornerstones of wellness namely Mauriora, Waiora, Toiora, Te Oranga, Te Mana Whakahaere and Nga Manukura. 1. Mauriora is associated with a secure cultural identity. Urbanisation broke the link between Maori and the land which caused insecure access to the Marae, Maori language issues and reduce opportunities for cultural expression in society. 2. Waior a is associated with environmental protection and linked to Maoris spiritual world. It connects physical with mental wellness ascribable to the interaction between the people and the environment (water, earth and cosmic) 3. Toiora is associated with a persons modus vivendi and relates to the willingness to engage in high risk experiences such as substance abuse, gambling, sedentary lifestyles and depleted moral values. The statistics for Maori in a Hawkes Bay study indicated that Maori was overrepresented as a group when compared to non-Maori (Ngati Kahungunu Iwi, 2003). 4. Te Oranga is dependent on a persons alliance in society which is determined by social vista. This in turn is a function of income, job status, choice of school and access to good health services. 5. Nga Manukura (leadership) refers to the ability of local leaders to assist health sea captains with the health promotional effort.The formation of alliances between these different groups to enable and combine di verse perspectives will ontogeny the effectiveness of health programs to a large degree as no single group have all the attributes or expertise to effect change. 6. self-reliance (Te Mana Whakahaere) is reflected in the level to which a community is able to determine their own aspirations, develop and implement measures to approve such initiatives and exert a level of fudge over the outcomes achieved. Of the six wellness described above all are impacted on through Te Tiriti o Waitangi. Maori have no autonomy other their affairs other than over their resources and taonga (treasures). Although there is a legal obligation to consult with Maori ( imaging Management Act, 2003) when plans are formulated and to listen to their input, it is not necessary to include them as part of the leadership of health plans or outcomes. Maoris participation in society is largely determined by their social position which is not as high as in a non-Maori society when viewed within Iwi or Whanua settin gs. This is further compromised by the perceived high risk Maori lifestyle which is not socially acceptable to non-Maoris.The broken link between Maori and their land/Marae reduces their confidence andwillingness to participate in opportunities for cultural expression in society. From the above it is exposed that there are several factors that determine Maori health outcomes. Of this only racism will be addressed in this paper as it is considered one of the main barriers to efficient Maori health care. Racism comprises of institutional racism, interpersonal racism and internalised racism. According to Durey & Thompson (2012) the various forms of racism should not be considered discreet categories but rather seen as being interrelated. Singleton & Linton (2006) defines racism as prejudice + power. This appears in practise when one group holds sway over institutional power and converts their beliefs and attitudes into policies and practises. This is happening in the health care syste m when services are developed by non-Maori for non-Maori based on the western biomedical model. This model differs from the Te Pae Mahutonga model in that it concentrates on diagnosis and treatment instead of prevention. The biomedical approach to health care is forcing Maori to adhere to a system that is not in line with their beliefs or allow them to change it due to lack of sufficient representation.This implies that the aspects of autonomy and leadership that is seen as a cornerstone of the Te Pae Mahutonga health model cannot be exercised hence leading to poor health outcomes for Maori. When Maori accepts these outcomes and see themselves as being inferior to others the institutional racism become internalised leading to a further degradation in health care due to lack of participation in society (Durey & Thompson 2012). The fourth cornerstone (Te Oranga) is therefore weakened due to the inability of Maori to participate in society on their terms. Interpersonal racism occurs w hen there is a lack of awareness of Maoris lived experiences and cultural meanings which manifests in poor communication or negative feedback and consequences. This contravenes the cornerstone of Mauriora which is burning(prenominal) for cultural expression in society. Maori cannot effectively participate in health care if they are not able to express themselves according to their culture and beliefs because of the health care providers inability to understand them. This is reflected in the current breast and cervical screening programs that is lower among Maori womanhood than woman of other ethnicities.Element three of Te Tiriti o Waitangi deals with the aspect of citizenshipand the rights of citizens. This element states that Maori will have the British Crowns protection and all the very(prenominal) rights as British subjects (Archives New Zealand, 2012). It is the definition of what constitutes same rights or Oritetanga that is at the heart of the matter. One viewpoint is to interpret Oritetanga as meaning the right to have it off benefits that result in equal outcomes. Another is to define Oritetanga as access to equal opportunities meaning that there should be no distinction between the opportunities for sale for Maori and non-Maori (Barrett & Connolly-Stone, 1998). It does not matter which viewpoint is preferred as the end result should always be that Maori advance equally with non-Maori (Hum summon & Fleras, 2001). This is in line with the comment from Theunissen (2006, p. 284) that Where human rights pertain to Oritetanga, Maori have the right to be protected from discrimination and inequitable health outcomes.According to Upton (1992) the New Zealand government has agreed that major differences still exist between the health status of Maori and non-Maori that cannot be ignored and that part of the problem is the rigidity of the health system causing it to be unable or antipathetical to respond to Maori needs. This is in contrast to spirit of el ement three of Te Tiriti which infers indirectly to the notion of equal partnerships and monetary and cultural security, both of which contributes to hauora (spirit of life/health) of Maori. The act poor response of the health system to improve Maori health can therefore be viewed as a violation of element three of Te Tiriti.Hill et al. (2010) concurs with the above in that Maori does not experience access to equal opportunities of quality and timely health care. Their view is one of Maori experiencing differential access and receiving health services from providers that practises institutional racism and professional prejudice (interpersonal racism). This in turn causes a negative impact on Maori self believe due to internalising the racism in their personal attitudes or beliefs (Hill et al., 2010). It is in this regard that the place of the nurse becomes critical important.It is generally acknowledged that the nurses individual cultural view pointsways his/her ability and manner they work with patients to forming trusted relationships. This framework may lead to societal prejudice when Maori is seen as being personally responsible for their disparities due to an inferiority of genes and lack of intelligence or effort in caring for self (Reid & Robson, 2006, p. 5). This is where cultural safe practises need to be applied in order to identify and resolve personal attitudes that may put Maori at risk. Safe practises also promote open mindedness that allows the health care professional to provide health services in line with Maori beliefs of healing and health. Such an approach will improve trust between the parties concerned and trust by Maori in the health care system.At the individual patient level nurses play an important role as they act as intermediaries between the health care professional and the client. The factors that influence the nurses professional ability in this framework are seen as cultural safety, advocating for patient rights and applying M aori models of care in preference to the biomedical model used in most western societies. According to Jansen et al. (2008) nurse-led interventions are the most fitting for providing healthcare services because they embrace culturally personalized approaches succession Barton & Wilson (2008) see a Maori-centred move towards caring as supporting the nurses ability to provide culturally suitable care. Cram et al. (2003) go as far as to suggest that if health concepts are developed by Maori for Maori then the likelihood of wrongly representing cultural values will be eliminated.The role of the nurse in advocating for patients rights can be done at two levels. At the lower level it may involve interacting with the health profession in order to avoid bias towards Maori whilst at the highest level it may involve the nursing workforce acting as one to discover changes in the health system that is fair to Maori. Action at both levels will endeavour to establish a consistent approach to be followed resulting in enhancing Oritetanga at social policy level (Jansen & Zwygart-Stauffacher, 2010).The Maori model of care Te Pae Mahutonga supports the development of a holistic approach in health care that is aimed at prevention rather than the diagnosis and treatment approach which is reflected in the biomedicalmodel. The hospital environment which forms the cornerstone of the biomedical approach is seen as unsuitable for Maori health improvement as they require access to mobile health care services in local and rural communities not hospitals. Whanua (broader family) participation is seen as an important part of the healing process and requires support mechanisms to enable this. Support mechanisms do not only include access to transport and housing but also an understanding of the role of karakia (prayer), Tapu and noa (risk and safety) and Wairua (spiritual force) (Ngati Kahungunu Iwi, 2003).The conclusion that can be reached from the above discussion is that Maori does no t enjoy a level playing field as far as health care services are concerned and that the spirit of element three of Te Tiriti o Waitangi is not adhered to by government. Most Maori health plans emphasise the importance of interpersonal relationships, awareness of Maori belief systems, cultural identity and Maori lifestyle as important to health and see the development of health plans by Maori for Maori as one of the most important factors that will contribute to improving health care for Maori.ReferencesArchives New Zealand. (2012). Treaty2U Te Tiriti o Waitangi. Retrieved from http//www.treaty2u.govt.nz/Barrett, M. and Connolly-Stone K. (1998) The Treaty of Waitangi and brotherly Policy. Social Policy journal of New Zealand, 11, 2947. Barton, P. & Wilson, D. Te Kapunga Putohe (the restless hands) a Maori centred nursing practice model. Nursing Praxis in New Zealand, 24 (2), 2-15 Cram, F., Smith, L., & Johnstone, W. (2003). Mapping the Themes of Maori Talk about Health. The New Zeal and Medical Journal, 116, 1-7Durey, A., & Thompson, S. C. (2012). Reducing the health disparities of Indigenous Australians time to change focus. Health Services Research, 12, 151Durie, M. (2003). Nga Kahui Pou Launching Maori Futures. Wellington, NewZealand HuiaGiddings, L. S. (2005). Health Disparities, Social Injustice and Culture of Nursing. Nursing Research, 5, 304-312.Hill, S., Sarfati, D., Blakely, T., Robson, B., Purdie G & Kiwachi, I. (2010). Survival disparities in indigenous and non-Indigenous New Zealanders with colon cancer The role of patient comorbidity, treatment and health service factors. Journal of Epidemiological Community Health, 64, 117123Howden-Chapman, P. and Tobias, M. (2000). Social Inequalities in Health. Retrieved from www.health.govt.nz/system/files/documents//reducineqal.pdfHumpage, L., & Fleras, A. (2001). Intersecting discourses Closing the gaps, social justice and the Treaty of Waitangi. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, 16, 3753.Jansen, M., & Zw ygart-Stauffacher, M. (2010). Advanced practice nursing Core concepts for professional role development. New York Springer.Jansen, P., Bacal, K., & Crengle, S. (2008). He Ritenga Whakaaro Maori experiences of health services. Auckland, New Zealand Mauri Ora AsssociatesMinistry of Health. (2012). Maori Health. Retrieved from http//www.health.govt.nz/our- work/populations/maori-healthNew Zealand Legislation. (2003). Resource Management Act 2003. Retrieved from http//www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2003/0023/latest/DLM194997.htmlNgati Kahungunu Iwi. (2003). Moari Health Plan for Hawkes Bay Draft. Retrieved fromwww.kahungunu.iwi.nz//iwi/HealingOurSpiritsHealthStrategy.pdfReid P., & Robson B. (2006). The State of Mori health. In M Mulholland (ed). State of the Mori ground Twenty-First Century Issues in Aotearoa. Auckland, New Zealand ReedSingleton, G. & Linton, C. (2006). Courageous Conversations about Race a field guide for achieving equity in schools. Thousand Oaks, atomic number 20 Corwin PressTheunissen, K. E. (2011). The nurses role in improving health disparities experienced by the indigenous Maori of New Zealand. Contemporary Nurse, 39(2), 281-286Upton, S. (1992).Your Health and the Public Health A Statement of Government Health Policy by the Hon Simon Upton, Minister of Health Wellington.Waikato District Health Board. (2012). Future Focus Section 5 Maori Health. Retrieved from http//www.waikatodhb.govt.nz/page/pageid/2145848209/Future_Focus World Health Organization. (2004). The World Health Report 2004. Retrieved from World Health Organization http//www.who.int/whr/2004/en/

Friday, May 24, 2019

With a Focus on Gender or Race

CAROL COLLINS STUDENT 11423048 1 With a focus on sex activity or race, discuss whether the criminal arbiter system is diagonaled. association expects the criminal arbiter system to provide justice for everyone by protecting the innocent, to punish and convict the discredited, and to rehabilitate them in an attempt to block up them reoffending. It is supposed to give fair justice for everyone, regard slight of grammatical gender, entirely much is written that suggests that the criminal justice system is gender- deviateed. Gender bias was non organize by the justice system, but it does reflect the funda handstal conditions and attitudes of society.The cost of gender bias to society, the criminal justice system, and to the people inside it is enormous. To discuss if the criminal justice system is gender-biased, an understanding should be reached regarding what is meant by the line gender. The word gender can be difficult to define, and also how it differs from the term sex. Whilst the term sex refers to the psychological and biological physiognomies that describe men and women, the term gender (The Free online Dictionary) refers to the roles that society considers to be appropriate for men and women, such as activities and behaviours.Categories of gender be masculine and feminine while sex categories atomic number 18 antheral and fe mannish. Some authors believe that the emergence of females offending has increased receivable to the virilisation of womens behaviour during the Womens Liberation Movement in the 1970s, and is responsible for the increasing numbers of women committing crimes. (Heidensohn, 1989 Adler, 1975). Aspects of sex do not vary between human being societies, but aspects of gender may be very different (Bryant and Trueman, 2000).Sex-stereotypes atomic number 18 said to be central to gender, which can be defined as the behaviours, attitudes, roles and beliefs that are passed from generation to generation (Weinrich, CAROL COLLIN S STUDENT 11423048 2 1980). Bias is defined as an inclination or preference that inhibits unbiased judgement. there are two views concerning whether men and women are treated differently by the courts and the law. The first is the chivalry hypothesis, which is that women are treated with to a greater extent respect, sympathy and courtesy.It is verbalise in the chivalry theory that more leniency is given to women than to men by the guard, courts and the criminal justice system in general. It is said that male chivalry means that a woman is less likely to be charged by the legal philosophy, and that the courts give lesser moveences to women than men, even if they have committed the same crime as male counterparts. Women who are sent to prison house very much receive shorter sentences than men which does imply that women are treated more leniently (Heidensohn, 2002).Some authors state that the chivalry hypothesis becomes not so relevant if the crimes committed are the same, an d sentencing varies very little between the sexes. It can be argued that the chivalry hypothesis only works if the offender fits what is considered to be the female stereotypical, gendered role. The second view of different gender-treatment is when a woman does not fit the stereotype of what are female norms, this double jeopardy theory becomes relevant, which results in much harsher sentencing (Carlen, 1985).It can be argued that in some cases that women are treated more severely by the criminal justice system because women are guilty of been doubly deviant by committing a crime they have not standd in a substance that is regarded to be a socially normal way for their gender to behave. It is also written that females who commit aggressive crimes are often treated more severely than men, who are aggressive because their behaviour is different from what is regarded as normal female behaviour (Paul and Baenninger, 1991 Gelsthorpe, 2003).CAROL COLLINS STUDENT-11423048 3 Campbell (199 3) states that violent women must rival men or be mentally ill, because it is not how nice girls should behave according to Batchelor (2001). It could be seen that in some areas the gender bias within the criminal justice system that gender rivalry with the men has been the predominant force. guard officers and adjudicate were interviewed by Hedderman and Gelsthorpe (1997) and were asked about the ways in which they made decisions.It is clear that women were given more leniencies if they have children, as their offences are treated as acquire more than greed, for example if they had stolen goods from a shop it was because they needed the goods for their family. However if a man had stolen from a shop it would have been seen that his motivation was one of greed. There is evidence that the possible gender bias in the criminal justice system begins as soon as a woman is taken to the police station. Fawcett (2006) comments that women feel that police stations are hostile places, artl y because of the behaviour and sexist language within the police service. Women are in general less tend to use their upright to have legal representation, but this may be not only because they are often charged with less beneficial crimes, or it could be because they feel overwhelmed and intimidated in the male-dominated police station. Only 20% of police officers are women, and only 18% of forensic officers are women. It is unclear whether police officers are trained to deal with women who have been victims of jest at, particularly when that is pertinent to the charges that have been brought against them.The household Office states that women who are given prison sentences are given shorter sentences than their male counterparts. This implies that women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system. The individuals history of offending and the nature of the offence are taken into account, and according to the Home Office, both the higher rate of CAROL COLLINS STU DENT-11423048 4 cautions issued to women, and the lower rate of custodial sentences, reflect that women are less likely to commit serious offences and that past criminal records are also taken into account.Offences that are committed by females tend to be less serious than those committed by men, and less women have previous criminal records. This indicates that, according to Trueman and Bryant (2003), there is not any sympathetic bias towards women. 27% of the women who are in prison are first-time offenders, which is more than twice the figure for men. This suggests that men offending for the first time are treated more leniently than women. 63% of women are serving custodial prison sentences for non-violent crimes, in contrast to 45% of men in prison. This suggests that women are sent to prison for far less serious crimes than men.According to the 2001 census, women represented 51. 3% of the population of England and Wales, but only 6. 1% of the prison population were women. It states that more women are likely to be given community sentences, or to be discharged, and that they are much less likely to be given a custodial sentence than men (Home Office, 2003). Only 8% of the total amount of people sentenced to a custodial prison sentence in 2001 was women. In the last ten years there has been an increase in the female prison population by 60% compared to an increase of 28% for men.The rise is explained by an increase in the severity of the sentences given. It is possible that the introduction in 1997 of The Mandatory and Minimum Sentencing Act put restrictions on judges from using their own discretion when passing sentences. It is believed that the prison system in the United Kingdom was designed for men by men (Corston, 2007). Gender issues not only cause problems for women but also for the trans-sexual prisoners. New prison guidelines in 2006 were introduced to reform aspects of the prison system in order to reduce gender bias towards trans-sexual indivi duals.Sir David CAROL COLLINS STUDENT-11423048 5 Ramsbotham, prison inspector in 2000, stated that trans-sexual prisoners were at risk of serious health problems due to the bias against them that they had been denied treatment, and he stated that they should be given the same treatment as everyone else. As fewer women go to prison than men, there is a male-dominated prison system. Due to this, there is diversity against women in the prison system. There are fourteen womens prisons in England, are there are none in Wales (Prison Reform Trust, 2010).This suggests that for women to be sent to a womens prison it is probable that they may be incarcerated a long distance away from their families, causing isolation and emotional stress (Women in Prison, 2006). A woman is imprisoned on average 57 miles away from their committal address, and in 2007 over 800 women was held more than 100 miles away. This also suggests that women are often imprisoned in a higher grade prison than they need to be in. Due to the fact that there are fewer womens prisons than mens prisons, there are far fewer opportunities such as training or education (Hayes, 2007).Over the past ten years the media has focused on many controversial problems within women prisons with television documentaries such as Girls behind bars, 2011. The newspapers have used headlines such as Women burn, pop off and stab themselves in jail hell (Bright, 2004). In the documentaries, any of the issues raised were indirectly a result of gender bias and the effect that it can have on the women inmates within the criminal justice system. Much of the emphasis of the programmes was about the mental illness that is caused by the lack of suitable prisons and facilities.This in turn often leads to self-harm, drug abuse and suicide. There is evidence that suggests that gender bias also exists in the criminal justice system against women who are victims of rape. It is believed that in rape trials it is the female rape victim wh o is made to feel that she is on trial more than the male suspect (Walklate, 1989). CAROL COLLINS STUDENT-11423048 6 Baroness grave was commissioned by the Government to do an independent report into the on-going concerns in the amount of rape cases that that went to court and resulted in a conviction.In the report Stern suggested that the (estimated) 14% of reported rapes that result in a conviction for rape or sexual assault was not low compared with other crimes. Of the rape cases that go to court, 58% result in a conviction. Stern reported that the figure would not improve under the present legal system (Williams, 2010). The Stern report (2011) suggested that improved care of the victim would improve the pass judgment of conviction, as fewer victims and witnesses would withdraw from the process, which would improve the possibility of a conviction. In 2005, only 6. % of rapes that were reported to the police and taken to court resulted in a conviction, compared to 35% of other criminal cases. In the United States of America (USA) the criminal justice system discriminates against men one point that is argued is that if a man commits a bump off in the USA it is more than twenty times more likely that he testament be given the death penalty. Whereas, if a woman murders a man, she is unlikely to be sentenced to death, however if she murders a child or another woman, she runs a higher risk of receiving a death sentence.Markedly, murdering a man is not significant enough to merit the death penalty (Farrell, 1993). According to Farrell, men do not speak up enough, publicize, or organise appeals, so that that biases against women are removed, and the biases against men remain. Information gathered shows that there is gender bias within the workforce of the criminal justice system. In 2008, only 24% of the police officers in England and Wales were women. Only 12% of women police officers had reached the position of Chief Inspector, compared to 27% who held the p osition of Constable.In CAROL COLLINS STUDENT- 11423048 7 2008, there were only 29 females who were members of the Chief constabulary Officers Association, out of 209 total members. A 1993 survey showed that nearly all the police women who took part in the survey had received some form of sexual torture from fellow male officers. There were also reports that 3 out of 10 had been subjected to unwanted touching and to offensive insults. 66. 5% of barristers are men, compared to 33. 5% who are women. A taggering 91% of Queens Counsel are men, compared to 9% who are women. A view could be taken that with gender bias amongst the employment ranks of the justice system, it is not strike that there is gender bias within the criminal justice process of criminal prosecution. There are conflicting arguments whether women suffer or benefit from bias during the sentencing for crimes. There is enough evidence to conclude that there is gender bias in the criminal justice system. There should be equal justice for all, in time the criminal justice system is failing women miserably.Women are at a disadvantage as offenders, suspects, defendants, and as employees. The system is failing female victims of violent crimes due to a lack of supportive services. Far too many women are being imprisoned for non-violent crimes. Women are under-represented as employees within the system, principally amongst the senior police levels, the judiciary, CPS, Queens Counsel and within law firms. The criminal justice system and the Government need to address the discrimination that exists against women, and they need to put the issue of gender as central to the criminal justice system.Everyone has a gender or sex, and should be given the right not to be discriminated against. It is a human right to liberty, security, justice, and to not be given punishment without law. It is a human right to a fair trial (Human Rights Act, 2000). As certain that night will conjoin day, people will commit crime s, and the reactions to the crimes and the way in which gender CAROL COLLINS STUDENT- 11423048 8 differences are approached in the criminal justice system, for the foreseeable future, will stay the same, coloured by their gender.WORDS- 2312 REFERENCES Adler, F. , 1975. Sisters in Crime The rise of the new female criminal. New York McGraw-Hill. Batchelor, S. , 2001. The Myth of Girl Gangs, Criminal Justice Matters, Spring Issue, 43, pp. 26-27. Bright, M. ., Women burn, strangle and stab themselves in jail hell. Online (Updated 8 February 1984) functional at http//www. guardian. co. uk/uk/2004/feb/08/ukcrime. prisonsandprobation1 Accessed 12 April 2012. Bryant, L. and Trueman , C. , 2000. History Learning site. online Available at Accessed 21 April 2012. Campbell, A. 1993. Men, Women and Aggression. New York Basic Books. Carlen, P. (1998) sleigh Womens Imprisonment at the Millennium, Macmillan Press Ltd Hound mills Basingstoke Hampshire London. Corston, B. 2007. Ministry of Justice Criminal Justice Group. online Accessed 8 April 2012. Farrell, M. 1993 Online http//www. mikefarrell. org/activist/deathpenalty. html Fawcett, 2006. Fawcett Closing the inequality gap. Online (Updated 2006) Available at http//www. fawcettsociety. org. uk/index. asp? PageID=712 Accessed 12 April 2012 Hayes, S. C. , 2007. Women with learning disabilities who offend what do we know? British Journal of Learning of Learning Disabilities and Offending Behaviour, 35 (3), pp. 187-191. Heidensohn, F. ,1989. Crime and Society Sociology for a changing world. London Palgrave MacMillan. Heidensohn, F. , 2002. Gender and Crime. In M. Maguire, Morgan, R and Reiner, R. , eds. The Oxford handbook of criminology. 3rd ed. Oxford Oxford University Press.Herrington, V. and Nee, C. , 2005. Self-perceptions, masculinity and female offenders, Internet Journal of Criminology. online Available at Accessed 21 April 2012. Home Office, 2003. Statistics on Women and the Criminal Justice System Report. Availabl e at Accessed 21 April 2012. Human Rights Act 2000.London HMSO. Legislation. gov. uk. Online Available at http//www. legislation. gov. uk/ukpga/1997/43/contents Accessed 12 April 2012. Paul, L. and Baenninger, M. (1991) Aggression by Women More myths and methods in Baenninger, R. (ed) Targets of violence and aggression. North Holland. Elsevier Science Publishing. Prison Reform Trust, 2010. Women in Prison. online (Updated 1 August. ) Available at Accessed 16 April 2012. Self-perceptions,

Thursday, May 23, 2019

Margaret Atwood; Cat’s Eye Analysis- Refraction and Self Essay

Our commonsense explanations of the universe and ourselves argon problematised by Atwood by dint of her novel. Nothing is quite as it chatms, when we look at anything (in a mirror, in the past, at others) it is refracted as if through water. Discuss the thought processs and issues in the novel in relation to this statement, paying particular attention to the techniques and narrative elements used to show this.Our commonsense explanations of the valet de chambre are based on the absolutes in our lives. Ways of seeing have been socially constructed embedded with values and attitudes that influence our behaviour and view of the world and ourselves. human macrocosms jakesnot be captured and is interpreted diametrically by every individual as if refracted through water. Cats affectionateness is a work of influential side of meat by author Margaret Atwood. The novels central area of exploration is of different random variables of reality, and the accuracy and truthfulness of ou r give visions of how we see the world and ourselves. These visions are problematised by Atwood, as she uses various techniques that allow her to discretely proffer her idea of nothing is quite as it seems to position the audience. This results in our stimulate endorsement of these beliefs, and leads us to oral sex our own lives as just a chance variable of reality, with a sense of disillusionment.Our world and our own lives are challenged by Atwoods novel, as in pursualioning the idea of no absolutes and constants in our lives, we also begin to question the other constants in our society such as religion being just another version of reality and not an absolute. This distresses many people and problematises our lives. Measurable, knowable, constant, and absolute qualities of life provide security in our beliefs and understanding of the world and our place within it. Absolutes help us make sense of the world, and provide a connection to the world and our own inner selves genera ting a sense of belonging. Atwood challenges the concept of absolutes, fixed/knowable identities, and common truths through various techniques.She uses narrative elements to proffer her ideas, such as autobiographical writing to encourage us to question the one and only version of reality that is being told (through Elaine and her life). Imagery/symbolism and intertextuality are recurring techniques, for example her repetitive use reflective surfaces such a glass, water and mirrors are all symbols used to question reflection, and how we seeourselves is what we see what we get? These techniques are used in order to provoke self-doubt and insecurity, to unsettle and complicate the way we see ourselves and our world, through the exciting questions that it asks of us. Cats eye challenges the naturalized and socially constructed views and encourages the ratifier to question the dominant views of the world and themselves.Refraction is the distortment of light, as it travels, its broken- up as it changes and moves through different mediums. Atwood uses refraction as a symbol representing the key belief that our vision of life and ourselves is refracted, broken up, distorted, and that as a result our perceptions arent always accurate. Atwood uses Elaines second encounter at the bridge to imply that our views, especially on other people are refracted, and not necessarily as they seem to be. Cordelia is seen to ready Elaine the most signifi bay windowtly, and it is not until the end of the book, when Elaine is finally coming back to herself (the bridge) that Elaine realises that Cordelia was not what she seemed to be.There is the same shame, the sick feeling in my body, the same acquaintance of my own wrongness, awkwardness, weakness the same wish to be loved the same loneliness the same fear. But these are not my own emotions anymore. They are Cordelias as they always were.It is only at the end of Elaines life when she realizes that her emotions that traumatized her childhood (and adult life) were in fact Cordelias, who in order to escape them and cope transferred them to Elaine. Elaine feels stronger with this knowledge and finally releases Cordelia, as the Virgin Mary once released her Its ok, you can go home now.Elaines mourning is over and she is free of Cordelia, she can see distinctly now- The snow in my eyes withdraws like smoke and is starting to make sense of her past. Atwood also uses Elaines misconception of Cordelia to exemplify how our refracted view of others substantially affects our view of ourselves and the world our experience of the present is coloured by our past events. Elaine realises that all these years, she still did not know Cordelia, supporting Atwoods dispute of the notion that there can really be a fixed and knowable personal identity. Atwood employs this metaphor in order to position the reader to be receptive to the ideathat our views on others, the world, and ourselves are not absolute but equivocal.In Cats Ey e the first person limited thread is unreliable in the sense that Elaine cannot see enough either because of her own maturation and desires and the forces conditioning them, or of the consequences of her choices. The novel questions whether lives, stories or autobiographical narratives can ever be accurate. A novel that presents a straightforward linear narrative that moves through events sequentially and constructs a complete set of ideas about life that seem unproblematic. It accepts that our experience of life, our thoughts and feeling, motivations, movement through clip our very representation in a literary text, can be captured accurately. It implies order, coherence, unity and stability a rational basis for our actions and thoughts thus presenting a standpat(prenominal) worldview.The structure of Cats Eye serves as a critique of this unproblematic view of the world. The novel constantly shifts between past and present and her narration as a young Elaine and an old Elaine. This shifting represents Elaines life, as she feels it is barley comprehensible. Because the story is written in first person, its only presents one version of reality- Elaines version. This leads us to question Elaines version and its accuracy. Atwoods purpose behind this is to bring to light the complexity of character in Elaine, and highlight her dispute in coming to terms with her own identity. This challenge on the common qualities of autobiographical narratives even leads the reader to question Cats Eye as just another version of reality that is presented to us in life.Atwood questions the belief that the individual is knowable and that appearance corresponds with fixed reality she critiques the notion that reality can be captured. This is shown through her questioning of autobiographical writing, and is perpetuated through the use of Elaines paintings at her gallery Sub-versions. Cordelia subjected Elaine to subtle, psychological bullying as a child, and destroyed her self- confidence, which lasts hale into her adult life. Her art is a way of expressing these bottled-up emotions and a means of dealing with her trauma her art presents a different version of reality of her life, one that she is unable(p) toconfront in her everyday life. I can no longer control these paintings, or tell them what to mean. Whatever energy they have came out of me. Im whats left over.Through her art she exerts a power that she did have in her childhood, taking revenge on Mrs. Smeath and confronting other issues such as her bullying in the painting Cats Eye, where Elaine appropriates the idea of the pier glass reflecting figures outside the frames of the main picture.This glass hangs behind a self-portrait that shows only fractional of Elaines head and incorporates signs of aging. In her childhood the three girls watch her from behind yet the young Elaine in the picture is turned around, facing her tormentors. The painting symbolises the claiming and resign of control. T he child, Elaine looks back at the three girls, the adult Elaine looks back at the outside viewer. The back of the head is crucial a mirror that shows only the ruined half of your face. Elaines art reflects the psychological state she is in and has faced in her childhood. This is symbolic of Elaine looking back on her life and seeing her childhood in a different light-Nothing is what it really seems. The gallery is appropriately named, contributing to Atwoods hypothesis Life is a series of different and conflicting versions of reality, identity and reality are not fixed and the concept of exact truth can never be captured.Atwoods novel Cats Eye shapes the reality by which we view the world and ourselves. Our lives operate around security (especially of ourselves) and we generate and understanding and connect ourselves to the world through various versions of reality that we reward to become believed absolutes upon which we base our lives Without the fixed reality we create for ours elves and the absolutes that structure our lives, our sense of purpose, and meaning diminishes. Distress is brought upon us through Cats Eye because Atwood critiques our quest for identity as she suggests that we will never know ourselves and will never have a fixed identity.It is therefore the readers choice on weather to comprehend the notions Atwood is proffering. Atwood uses varied techniques and narrative elements such as imagery, symbolism, and the narrative point of view to allude her beliefs. Through the particular employment of these techniques Atwood strengthens her case to the reader and positions them to support her indited criticisms of a knowable identity, and a fixed reality and truth. Cats Eye challenges themeasurable, and the way we qualify things as knowable and existing and a truth.BibliographyAtwood, Margaret, Cats Eye, Penguin, Montreal 1968

Wednesday, May 22, 2019

Barilla Spa Case Report

Executive Summary As per our conversation last week I would like to return the idea originally brought to life by Brando Vitali before he was promoted to head one of our comp any(prenominal)s stark naked divisions overseas. In order to address the snub which depart be a direct result of introduction of JIT Distribution system, I would like to present the issues and my recommendations to you before our impact with Marconis executives to discuss JITD proposal.As the meeting is scheduled for the of November I would like to hear your thoughts on JITD before the end of this month so I can make appropriate changes to address any issues you office foresee as a direct result of our proposal. The decision to adopt the Just-in-Time Distribution give most likely be met with our sales and trade teams resistance to change. Our old-fashioned statistical distribution system has been nurtured since the early development of our brand of distribution.Promotions and advertising were key to ou r success of achieving a genuine aim of trust within our cut scope some(prenominal) internally and externally. I recommend a staged implementation of the JITD to suffer our staff to adapt to our new philosophy. Our distribution networks could become more(prenominal) efficient alternatively than being all about relationships based on pushing the product out of our facilities. It appears that our Supply train executives are not looking for ways to reduce waste within our distribution channels as we are not even clear on how we measure our success.Applying Lean principles to our Supply range of a function is misleading to our staff as they think their job security is on the line. This is met with internal resistance that deals to be addressed before we can pass by the advantages and benefits of JITD to our external distribution networks. I believe that Vitalis approach will fit our new Supply Chain management strategy of Just-in-Time Distribution which will allow us to ship products as needed, rather than building enormous stock to deal with volatile involve patterns.We need to break d proclaim the silos and secrecy of our distribution processes to our customers to allow for more efficient channels of distribution. A more transparent approach with fewer layers on the way will allow for a lots more efficient Supply Chain. Working closely with our distributors will allow us to reduce our throw inventory and manufacturing costs along the way. We also need to consider our own forecasting systems to built the trust within our channels of distribution.Scheduled monthly meeting will allow for an open dialogue between various groups that might be affected by this implementation. I believe that open lines of communication both internally and externally will contribute to the ultimate success of JITD implementation. We will have to address issues as they come up to ensure the peace of mind of those who will be affected the most. We need to be more flexible to address problems and bottle necks of our distributors as that would be crucial to success of JITD.The main idea we need to communicate across our Supply Chain is that JITD would allow us to pop off waste and throw rid of extra layers which our in the way of addressing our issue of volatile demand patters which result in stockouts. Giorgio Maggali, MBA, SCMP Director of Materials Management glasswort Fresh Products Group October 16, 2012 Barilla Spa Case Study Issue Identification As the decision maker in this case I believe that the main issue presented in this case study is resistance to change.To be more specific, DOs (Organized Distributors) resistance to adopt a new Just-in-Time distribution (JITD) system which would replace the old-fashioned distribution system used by Barillas Supply Chain traditionally. This traditional distribution system has always been viewed as a successful one, as it worked for everyone within the channels of distribution granting dry products to supermarket chains and independent supermarkets. There was a certain level of trust achieved between the merchandise group, sales reps and buyers who are a part of the Supply Chain built around trade promotions.DOs expectations of frequent trade promotions were considered the still means to cost reduction during the canvass periods where distributors were able to buy as much product as desired to meet current and future needs. This is a well nurtured traditional system which took a lot of years to develop. Environmental and sink Cause Analysis Approximately 65% of Barillas dry products were supplied through outside distributors to supermarket chains and independent supermarkets who would eventually get the product into the pass of the ultimate user.Distributors would receive their product from one of the two Barillas central distribution centers (CDCs) where movement of product would be assessed based on its sept which would be either dry or fresh. Barilla maintained different distribution systems for its dry and fresh products due to their differences in perishability and retail gain requirements. Brando Vitalis JITD proposal focused solely on dry products sold through Barillas distributors who I am going to examine. There is an intentness culture around the supply and demand of Barilla products.Internal and external politics are at the root cause of the resistance to change around the distribution channels. There are issues that Barilla needs to address internally before the idea of JITD can come to life externally. Barillas sales and marketing personnel have expressed a range of concerns because this new philosophy could potentially cost some staff and executives their jobs from the bottom to the top of the sales agreement as it is developed further. Sales executives are clinging to the idea of promotion based strategy which the old-fashioned distribution system is based around.This is not a well behaved sign as efforts to reduce costs should be m ade from all aspects of the Supply Chain Management. Executives should be concerned with efficiency of their supply chains from different tiers of suppliers all the way thru different tiers of their customers until the product reaches its ultimate user. Barilla executives are not looking for ways to reduce waste within their distribution channels as its not even clear how they measure success of their sales force. Barillas distribution network is precisely based around relationships, not of necessity around efficiency of their supply chain.They should be looking at ways to eliminate waste, even if it means leaning out their sales force and only keeping those who truly perform well. Staff will always resist change as it is uncertainty that scares everyone when new ideas are introduced within an brass section, especially if it might put their job security on the line. Once the internal issues are addressed and the new philosophy starts taking precedence they can effectively communi cate JITD to their DO channels. Sales reps would be successful at communicating the ideas and benefits of JITD system to the buyers of the Organized Distributors.Those buyers would then facilitate the flow of this information from the bottom to the top of the organization before a meeting can take place with Marconi and other DOs. Alternatives and/or Options Giver the current situation, I believe there are only two options to consider here. First one is to remain status quo and run the risk of stockouts as the effect of fluctuating demand which due to variation in demand leads to cost increases. The other option would be to embrace the new philosophy of JITD internally and communicate it further down the supply chain to the DOs.Brando Vitali had it sort out all along with the idea he referred to as Just-in-Time Distribution (JITD) which was modelled after the renowned Just-in-Time manufacturing concept. His philosophy was to consider JITD as a selling tool rather that a threat to s ales. Vitalis view was that as a supply chain we should focus on demand from end user as that is the supply we trying to address at the time its required. In order to effectively address the issues of fluctuating demand we need to be able to suffice to unexpectedly high demand from the end-consumer and the quickest way to do that would be to eliminate as many layers as possible.Additional inventories to dampen fluctuations costs money, costs of maintaining certain service levels should also be taken into consideration. Rather than filling distributors demand, according to their planning department, we should be looking at distributors data directly and only devote what is needed rather than supply distributors with inventory they can hold to anticipate demand swings. By doing so, we would be able to improve operations for ourselves and our customers if we were responsible for ascertain the quantities and delivery schedules.This will allow us to further reduce costs as transportat ion could be handled by our CDCs based on sales vividness variations. Recommendation and Implementation I recommend the JITD system as it will address the stockouts issues were currently experiencing as the effect of fluctuating demand. Our distributors already carry too much inventory (see Exhibit 13) which doesnt resolve the stockouts issues were seeing despite the fact that they are holding a couple of weeks inventory.We should be able to improve operations for our distributors if we were allowed to be responsible for determining quantities and delivery schedules based on end users demand. This would allow us to ship product as per demand required rather than trying to manufacture stock large enough to supply both of our facilities. Furthermore we would be able to reduce our own distribution, inventory and manufacturing costs and pass those savings onto our customers if we didnt have to worry about volatile demand patterns.Ultimately this will work the same way it does with Bari lla sales representatives assisting with setting up in-store promotions analyzing competitive information including competitors prices, stockouts and new product additions. This would be effective because no one knows our product dampen than we do. If our sales reps are allowed at distribution facilities, they would be able to assist, gather and exchange a lot of valuable information about our needs and those of our DOs. The more we know about each others origin the better off our Supply Chain will be.The fewer layers we have, the quicker we can get our product to our ultimate customers reducing our own inventory and manufacturing costs along the way. Well have to improve our own forecasting systems of course as it is imperative to our business that our distributors have that extra confidence in our abilities. Monitor and Control This sort of an idea would require a lot of back and forth communication both internally and externally. Cross functional teams would be required to addr ess issues and concerns which might arise from this sort of implementation.The whole process should be done in stages to allow staff to adapt to the changes gradually. Keeping everyone informed would be key as the only way to reassure staff and address uncertainty would be to tame them on pros on cons of the system being brought to life. Regularly scheduled monthly meetings are an absolute must to address issues as they arise. New KPIs should be clearly communicated to the sale reps. Our reps should be clear on all of the aspects of JITD implementation as they would play an important role of facilitating the flow of information down the Supply Chain.Once DOs are up to speed on JITD, a simulation should be considered with external distributors to demonstrate the benefits of the new distribution system once it is implemented. Inviting DO representatives to see our manufacturing facilities and addressing their concerns with solutions would go along way on establishing rapport and stre ngthening relationships. Probing and addressing bottle necks of our distributors with JITD would also be beneficial to everyone as our ability to eliminate wastes and get rid of extra layers would reduce costs across the Supply Chain.

Tuesday, May 21, 2019

Homeschooling Is Bad

Why Home inculcateing is Not Doing Children Justice Homeschooling is an option for your child if you do non want them in public or private schooling. straight offs society of parents allow for make that choice for the child, wither the child wants to or not. Many parents regard that public schools are not educating their child teeming so they resort to homeschooling. This would mean devoting your time as a parent by helping support them in learning and to make sure they will succeed with their education. The problem today is that many parents will work with their child for astir(predicate) a month and all of a sudden digest no much time to educate them.In the beginning it is your familys motivation and you want to make them proud, so you try your hardest. Homeschooling you have the choice of what you learn, or will learn, sometimes even your parents interests or morals as well. Homeschooling is one on one attention, and in most cases is bad since parents are the only teachers it is easier to just do their childs work for them if they do not understand it. One on one attention is only effectual if you have a child that has special needs and needs more time learning.Also if your parent is your teacher most of the kids will find it easier to manipulate them with the schooling. Since homeschoolers lodge at home for school, and are not being around other friends everyday they are known to be a little unsocial. This means you have very few friends, and with the few friends you do have, the others think you are weird since you do not attend regular school. The good social function about being homeschooled though is that you choose your own friends. Attending public school you do choose your own friends but often your friends with people for benefits as well.For exemplar your friends with the bully, so they will not dare try to bully you. Most kids do not want their parents choosing their friends for them so its a good subject to be able to go to school an d see them all throughout the day. Homeschooling does not have sports, extracurricular activities, lab, tests, semesters, or SAT/ACT studying. Sports are a good thing since most kids like to stay active, but in erect to play that sport you must keep up your grades in order to do so, which helps kids keep up their grades since they want to play.Extracurricular activities are nice as well they help children make friends, spark your interests, and are fun. Labs are mostly for the scholarship classes, but most kids enjoy them, and it also helps make learning fun. Homeschooling you hardly have any tests, but in public or private school you have a test at least once a month. Tests help the teacher know if the students understand the concept of if they still need more time to understand what it is. Homeschooling is not broken up into semesters or even quarters the child works at his pace.This could be a good thing by the child getting ahead of the work and constantly on it, but in many c ases that is not how it is, most kids will procrastinate and leisurely all motivation to do it, and many times their parents are unaware of this. Lastly a major concern for parents who home school is how they will do on their SAT test or ACT test since in public or private schools they study for that. This scares them that they will not get into college because they think their scores will be so low.This just depends on how your home school teacher is, and how motivated the student is, but for homeschoolers they have to work doubly as hard to do better since they dont have the 800 a. m. to 200 p. m. learning. Homeschooling can be helpful, but most parents do not help their child with the work, so they often do not finish and will resort to a G. E. D, end up in an educational school, or simply just drop out. Homeschooling clearly does not work for everybody and in todays society it wont do our children justice.

Monday, May 20, 2019

Leadership Style and Performance Essay

An overview of the topic of lead musical modes summarizes that the existing studies on how performance is affected by leading style is separated into crucial phases. Early studies on leadinghip (frequently categorized as trait studies on leadinghip) concentrated on identifying the mortalality traits which characterized triple-crown leading (Argyris, 1955 Mah one and only(a)y et al. , 1960). harmonize to them successful leaders ar natur on the wholey born and those they wee-wee certain native characteristics which distinguish them from non-leaders (see Stodgill, 1948).However, on that point was signifi quartert difficulty in validating these characteristics led to widespread criticism of this trait approach, signaling the topic of style and behavioral approaches to leadership (Stodgill, 1948). Style and behavioral theorists shifted the accent mark away from the characteristics of the leader to the behavior and style the leader adopted. The primry conclusion of these s tudies is that adoption of democratic or participative styles by leaders are more successful (see, for example, Bowsers and Seashore, 1966).In this sense, these early studies are foc employ on identifying the one best way of leading. withal to trait theories, the major weakness of style and behavioral theories is the ignorance of how important fictitious character situational factors play in find the effectiveness of individualistic leaders (Mullins, 1999). It is this limitation that gives rise to the situational and contingency theories of leadership (for example, Fiedler, 1967 House, 1971 Vroom and Yetton, 1974) which shift the emphasis away from the one best way to lead to context-sensitive leadership.Although each study emphasizes the importance of contrary factors, the ecumenic tenet of the situational and contingency perspectives is that leadership effectiveness is dependent on the leaders diagnosis and discernment of situational factors, followed by the adoption of th e appropriate style to deal with each circumstance. However, upstart studies on leadership cave in creaseed transactional leadership with transformational. Transactional leaders are said to be instrumental and frequently focus on swap relationship with their subordinates.In contrast, transformational leaders are argued to be prophet and enthusiastic, with an inherent ability to motivate subordinates. Although the plan summary above indicates that research into leadership has gone through periods of skepticism, recent interest has focused on the importance of the leadership role to the success of native laws. Fiedler (1996), one of the most respected researchers on leadership, has provided a recent treatise on the importance of leadership by arguing that the effectiveness of a leader is a major determinant of the success or failure of a group, organization or even an entire country.It has been argued that one way in which organizations buzz off sought to cope with the increa sing volatility and turbulence of the external surroundings is by training and developing leaders and equipping them with the skills to cope. These claims are based on the assumption of a direct link among leadership and organizational performance. This assumption requires critical review. Widely celebrated cases of a direct leadershipperformance link may be found in numerous anecdotical accounts of improvements of company performance attributed to changes in leadership (see, for example, Nicholls, 1988 Quick, 1992 Simms, 1997).However, empirical studies into the links amid leadership and performance have been lacking. unrivalled non commensurate exception is the detailed study of the impact of leadership on performance in the just about surprising context of Icelandic fishing ships. Thorlindsson (1987) suggests that variations in the performance of different fishing ships, down the stairs identical conditions, quite a little be accounted for by the leadership skills of capt ains. Over a three-year period, Thorlindsson revealed that the leadership qualities of the ship captains accounted for 35 to 49 per cent of variation in the catch of different crews.Other studies which examine the links between leadership and performance coincide with the re-emergence of the one best way to lead debate. Of particular relevance is the revival of interest into charismatic leadership, which is frequently referred to as transformational leadership ( bass and Avolio, 1993). A number of researchers theorize that transformational leadership is link up to organizational performance. Conceptually, it is argued that the tedious and inspirational skills of transformational leaders motivate pursuit to deliver superior performance.In summary, a good deal of the above evidence presented as supporting the claim of a leadershipperformance link is anecdotal and frequently over-concentrates on the transformational role of leaders in corporate successes. It would appear that fe w studies have replyed to the rumination of Porter and Mckibbin (1988) that much of the research reported as supporting this claim is either inconclusive or empirically suspect. The limited or inconclusive character of research findings in this area suggests the admit to check up on further the nature of the relationship between leadership and performance.Several different categories of leadership paradigms have been suggested by various researchers. For example, Bass (1985) stated that there are four dimensions of transformational leadership, three dimensions of transactional leadership, and a non-leadership dimension of capitalist leadership (Bass, 1985). Avery (2004) suggested categorizing leadership into four leadership paradigms, while Goleman (1995) prefers six leadership paradigms. Despite Basss (1985) model being acclaimed as making a major contribution to leadership, his possibleness has been criticized for various reasons (Yukl, 1999).One criticism is that his model overemphasizes the importance of one or two leadership paradigms (e. g. transactional and visionary), omitting the true and organic paradigms Bass asserts that visionary (transformational) leaders are nearly always more effective than transactional leaders, but others (e. g. appraise and Piccolo, 2004 Wallace, 1997) feud this. While this in itself does not invalidate the concept of visionary leadership, Bass attributes more to visionary (transformational) leadership than perhaps he should.As Avery (2004) suggested, both transactional and visionary leadership are valid forms of leadership, but visionary leadership may be applicable more broadly, including in situations where there are insufficient re pedigrees for the motorbus to rely on supplying external reciprocates (jurist and Piccolo, 2004), or where the situation is complex and ambiguous, and relies strongly on follower knowledge and commitment. Avery suggests that there are other situations in which transactional leadersh ip is the appropriate form of leadership, such as when followers are unwilling or unable to commit to the leaders vision.In contrast with Basss (1985) model, Averys (2004) paradigms provide a broad basis allowing for different forms of leadership that have evolved at different times and in different places. The paradigms are efficacious for showing that there is no single best way of thinking ab turn out leadership, rather that different kinds of leadership reflect loving and historical roots. Averys paradigms allow leadership to depend on the context, respond to organizational ineluctably and preferences, and make many interdependent factors that can be manipulated (Bryman, 1992 Shamir and Howell, 1999 Yukl, 1999).Avery (2004) proposes 13 indices to differentiate between her four paradigms authorized, transactional, visionary, and organic. The golf-club indices include in this review are decision making, range of staffs power, power distance between leader and the staff, key player of the organization, source of staffs commitment, staffs responsibility, situation of wariness and leadership in the organization, situation of diversity in the organization and situation of pick up in the organization. These nine criteria are considered more relevant for differentiating the four leadership paradigms than the other four criteria.Each paradigm is discussed in turn, including the distinguishing characteristics using the above nine criteria. Classical leadership is probably the oldest paradigm with its origins in antiquity, and is lighten used in contemporary organizations (Avery, 2004). This paradigm reflected the prevailing view in the business literature until the 1970s when the humane relations movement led to more of a focus on followers and their environment. According to Avery (2004), classical leadership refers to dominance by a pre-eminent person or an elite group of people.This leadership can either be coercive or benevolent or a mixture of both. This happens because the elite individual or group commands or maneuvers other members to act towards a goal, which may or may not be explicitly stated. The other members of the society or organization typically adhere to the directives of the elite leader, do not openly question their directives, and execute orders largely out of fear of the consequences of not doing so, or out of respect for the leader, or both (Avery, 2004). Classical leadership has some limitations.The first occurs where the leader cannot command and rig every action, in particular as situations become more complex and beyond the capacity of one person or when additional commitment from followers is needed to get a job done, such as in reacting to changing circumstances or when ideas about leadership change and followers no agelong accept domination, or follower commitment starts to wane for other reasons. Another limitation is that this paradigm frequently relies on the idea of a great person, implying that only a select few are good enough to exercise initiative, and this belief can encourage followers to deskill themselves nd idealize the leaders. followers then seek and hold little power, leave the leader accountable for organizational outcomes, and make relatively little contribution to the organization (Avery, 2004). According to the nine distinguishing indicators, chthonic the classical leadership paradigm leaders normally use an autocratic style for making decisions, involving followers in the decision making surgery never or very little they do not empower followers. Followers have closely no power in the organization and as classical leaders tend to be extremely directive, followers can be un arch(prenominal).The source of followers commitment comes from their fear of or respect for the leaders the technical system becomes more regulating the operations in the organization become more rule and predictable and the organization is exceedingly controlled by the leaders (A very, 2004). A transaction or exchange branch is the basis of the commonly employed transactional leadership paradigm (Evans and Dermer, 1974 House and Mitchell, 1974). The transactional leader recognizes subordinates needs and desires, and then clarifies how those needs and desires will be met in exchange for subordinates work.By clarifying what is required of subordinates and the consequences of their behaviors, transactional leaders are able to build confidence in subordinates to exert the necessary effort to achieve expected levels of performance. According to Judge and Piccolo (2004), three dimensions of transactional leadership are contingent reward, anxiety by exception-active, and management by exception-passive. Contingent reward is the degree to which the leader sets up constructive transactions or exchanges with followers.The leader clarifies expectations and establishes the rewards for meeting these expectations. In general, management by exception is the degree to whi ch the leader takes corrective action on the basis of results of leader-follower transactions (Judge and Piccolo, 2004). As noted by Howell and Avolio (1993), the difference between management by exception-active and management by exception-passive lies in the time of the leaders intervention. Active leaders monitor follower behavior, anticipate problems, and take corrective actions out front the behavior creates serious difficulties.Passive leaders wait until the behavior has created problems before taking action (Howell and Avolio, 1993 Judge and Piccolo, 2004). According to Avery (2004, p. 34), low the transactional leadership paradigm, leaders adopt a consultative style for making decisions. They aim in different degrees of consultation with individual followers, but the leaders remain the final decision-makers. Leaders do not very often empower followers, and followers have very low power in the organization apart from being able to withdraw from or contribute more of their labor.Compared with classical leadership, under transactional leadership the source of followers commitment comes from the rewards, agreements, and expectations negotiated with the leader rather than from their fear of, or respect for, the classical leader. The technical system becomes more regulating, the operations in the organization become more routine and predictable, and the organization is mostly highly controlled by the leaders. Avery (2004) argues that under transactional leadership, the followers knowledge base can be somewhat higher than under classical leadership.Compared with classical leaders, transactional leaders require staff somewhat more skilled on specific tasks. In the last three decades, visionary (transformational, charismatic) leadership has received increasing prudence (Bass, 1985, 1998 Burns, 1978 Conger and Kanungo, 1987 House, 1977). It added a new dimension to organizational studies, namely the visionary aspect of leadership and the aflame involvement of employees within an organization. The basic notion is that a visionary leader can create an consequence that he or she has high competence and a vision to achieve success.Subordinates are expected to respond with enthusiasm and commitment to the leadership objectives, and may be recruited because they share the vision. Bass (1985, 1998) developed a theory of visionary or transformational leadership whereby the leader inspires and activates subordinates to perform beyond normal expectations. According to Avery (2004), visionary leadership has limitations, even with the current literatures overwhelmingly positive view of it. Nadler and Tuschman (1990) pointed out that the unrealistic expectations followers often place on visionary leaders can create disappointment if things do not work out.Followers can become dependent on visionary leaders, believing that the leader has everything under control. Also, innovation can be inhibited if people become reluctant to disagree with a visi onary leader. Avery (2004, p. 39) distinguishes the visionary leadership paradigm from the other three paradigms as follows. First, leaders employ a collaborative style for making decisions. They share problems with their followers and seek consensus before the leaders make the final decision. breezy leaders empower their followers, giving followers a much higher level of power in the organization than classical and transactional leadership.This is essential because the leader needs the followers input and commitment to realize his or her goals. Followers of visionary leadership need sufficient power to work autonomously towards a overlap vision. The source of followers commitment comes from the influence of the leaders charisma and/or the shared vision, the technical system becomes still more complex, operations become more uncertain and unpredictable, and the organization is jointly controlled by the leaders and their followers.Regarding the followers knowledge base, visionary l eadership requires skilled and knowledgeable workers who are attracted to, and share the leaders vision, and can contribute to realizing the vision. The fourth paradigm, organic leadership, is relatively new to organizational studies. Recently introduced by Drath (2001) and expanded by Avery (2004), organic leadership is likely to blur the formal distinction between leaders and followers.This paradigm relies on reciprocal actions, where team members work together in whatever roles of authority and power they may have, not based on position power (Hirschhorn, 1997 Raelin, 2003 Rothschild and Whitt, 1986). Employees become interacting partners in determining what makes sense, how to adapt to change, and what is a useful direction. Rather than relying on one leader, organic organizations are likely to have many leaders. Multiple leaders are valuable because as people cope with heterogeneous and dynamic environments, the knowledge and issues become withal complicated for only a few lea ders to understand (Avery, 2004).Organic leadership allows for people with different degrees of expertise on current issues to emerge and be accepted by the group as leaders. In addition, under organic leadership, there may be no formal leaders and the interaction of all organizational members can act as a form of leadership, held together by a shared vision, values, and a supporting culture. Under this paradigm where an organization has no formal leadership structure, an integrator role may emerge to actively link together the many parts of the organization (Avery, 2004).The emphasis is on emerging leadership rather than on people being appointed to leadership positions. However, Kanter (1989) argued that the downside of organic leadership that advocates autonomy, freedom, discretion and authorization may result in loss of control and greatly increased uncertainty. It is important to recognize that organic leadership is about generating a form of self-control and self-organization, where people have a clear sense of purpose and autonomy within a particular context (Meindl, 1998).This idealized organic leadership paradigm requires differentiating from classical, transactional, and visionary leadership concepts by not relying on formal leaders. Furthermore, the enterprise has to pull in the capacity of its members to solve problems and make decisions in the interests of the organization. This idea clearly relies upon self-leading organizational members (Avery, 2004). According to Averys (2004, p. 39) distinguishing characteristics, under organic leadership an organization adopts a mutual agreement style for making decisions.Decisions need not be unanimous but can be based on consensus. The members have a high degree of power as a result of this shared leadership. Accountability and responsibility are shared as well. The source of followers commitment is based on the values and visions shared by all the members in the organization a strong, shared culture a tec hnical system that is highly complex operations in the organic organization become more self-organizing and unpredictable formal control is provided by peer pressure and group dynamics, and a shared culture, vision, and values.Members are self-managing. Organic leadership seems particularly appropriate for professional and knowledge workers in dynamic, chaotic situations. This leadership paradigm relies on attracting and retaining highly expert and knowledgeable staff with self-controlling capabilities.